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introenviro

Summary
Reproductive Development
Exposures of Concern
Preconception Effects
Spontaneous Abortion
Congenital Malformations
Endocrine Disruption
Clincal Practice
Prevention
Resources
Notes

 

 

Notes

  1. CALPIRG - California Public Interest Research Group Charitable Trust and PSR -Physicians for Social Responsibility (Greater SF Bay & LA Chapters). Generations at Risk: How Environmental Toxicants may Affect Reproductive Health in California. 1998. Pg 5.
  2. Lemasters GK et al. Workshop to identify critical windows of exposure for children’s health: reproductive health in children and adolescents Work Group summary. Env. Health Perspec 2000;108(Suppl 3): 505-09. Pg 505.
  3. Pryor JL, Hughes C, Foster W, Hales BF, and Robaire B. Critical windows of exposure for children’s health: the reproductive system in animals and humans. Env. Health Perspec 2000;108(Suppl 3): 491-503.
  4. Adapted from Pryor et al, 2000: 492 op cit; Lemasters et al, 2000 op cit.
  5. Sullivan FM. Impact of the environment on reproduction from conception to parturition. Env Health Perspec 1993;101(Suppl 2):13-18. Pg. 17.
  6. Foster WG, Jarrell JF, Younglai EV, Wade MG, Arnold DL, and Jordan S. An overview of some reproductive toxicology studies conducted at Health Canada. Toxicol & Ind Health 1996;12:447-459.
  7. Pryor et al, 2000 op cit.
  8. Curtis KM, Savitz DA, Weinberg CR and Arbuckle TE. The effect of pesticide exposure on time to pregnancy. Epidemiology. 1999;10:112-117.
  9. Mattison DR et al. Reproductive effects of pesticides. In: The Effects of Pesticides on Human Health. Advances in Modern Environmental Toxicology.Vol XVIII. Baker SR and Wilkinson CF. (Eds.) Princeton: Princeton Scientific Publishers. 1990. Pp. 297-389; and Whorton, D. et al. Infertility in male pesticide workers. Lancet. 1977;2:1259.
  10. Lerda D and Rizzi R. Study of reproductive function in persons occupationally exposed to 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D). Mutation Research. 1991;262:47-50.
  11. Eaton M. Schenker M, Whorton D, Samuels S, Perkins C and Overstreet J. Seven-year follow-up of workers exposed to 1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane. J. Occup Med. 1986;28:1145-1150.
  12. Alexander BH, Checkoway H, van Netten C, Muller CH, Ewers TG, Kaufman JD, Mueller BA, Vaughan TL and Faustman EM. Semen quality of men employed at a lead smelter. Occup Env Med 1996;53:411-416.
  13. Reduced fecundability was found in women who ate sport fish for 3 to 6 years. Buck, GM, Vena JE, Schisterman EF, Dmochowski J, Mendola P, Sever LE, Fitzgerald E, Kostyniak P, Greizerstein H and Olson J. Parental consumption of contaminated sport fish from Lake Ontario and predicted fecundability. Epidemiology 2000;11:388-393.
  14. Those who consumed more than one fish meal per month or had consumed fish for a duration of 7 years or more, had cycles that were 1.11 to 0.63 days shorter. Mendola P; Buck GM; Sever LE; Zielezny M; Vena JE. 1997. Consumption of PCB-contaminated freshwater fish and shortened menstrual cycle length. Am J Epidemiol 146(11):955-60.
  15. See Griesemer RA et al. Report of the federal panel on formaldehyde. Env Health Perspec 1982;43:139-168; Shumilina AV. Menstrual and reproductive functions of workers with occupational exposure to formaldehyde. Gig Tr Prof Zabol 1975;12:18-21.
  16. Sperm mature in the human testes over a period of about 72 days. Rathus SA, Nevid JS and Fichner-Rathus L. Human Sexuality in a World of Diversity. 3rd Ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. 1997.
  17. Kelsey KT et al. Sister chromatid exchange in painters recently exposed to solvents. Environ Res 1989;50:248-255.
  18. Friedler G. Developmental toxicology: Male-mediated effects. In: Occupational and Environmental Reproductive Hazards: A Guide for Clinicians. Maureen Paul (Ed.) Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. 1993. Pp. 52-59.
  19. The human female is born with about 2 million ova in immature form. Only several hundred thousand of these actually last into puberty and of these, roughly only 400 will ripen and be released by the ovaries during a woman’s reproductive years. (Rathus et al. 1997, op.cit.)
  20. Bearer, C. Developmental Toxicology. In: Environmental Medicine. Brooks SM. et.al. (Eds). St. Louis: Mosby. 1995. Pp. 115-128.
  21. CALPIRG and PSR 1998 op cit.
  22. See Lindbohm ML, et al. Spontaneous abortions among women exposed to organic solvents. Am. J. Ind Med 1990;17:449-463; Windham GC et al. Exposure to organic solvents and adverse pregnancy outcome. Am J Ind Med 1991;20:241-259.
  23. Waller K. et.al. Trihalomethanes in drinking water and spontaneous abortion. Epidemiology. 1998;9:134-40.
  24. Arbuckle TE and Sever LE. Pesticide exposures and fetal death: A review of the epidemiologic literature. Crit Rev Toxicol. 1998;28:229-270; and Nurimen, Tuula. Maternal pesticide exposure and pregnancy outcome. J Occ Env Med. 1995;37:935-940.
  25. If the father reported mixing and applying pesticides plus the use of thiocarbamates, carbaryl, atrazine, glyphosate, 2,4-DB, or organophosphates, for example, there was greater risk of miscarriage and prematurity. Health Canada. Health Protection Branch. Laboratory Centre for Disease Control. Looking at pesticides and pregnancy. Farm Family Health. 1998;6(1).
  26. Arbuckle and Sever, 1998 op cit.
  27. Ibid.
  28. Nurimen, 1995 op cit.
  29. CALPIRG and PSR, 1998.
  30. Weidner IS, Moller H, Jensen TK and Skakkebæk NE. Cryptorchidism and hypospadias in sons of gardeners and farmers. Environ Health Perspec. 1998;106:793-6.
  31. Garry VF, et al. Pesticide appliers, biocides, and birth defects in rural Minnesota. Environ Health Perspec. 1996;104:394-399.
  32. Munger R, et al. Intrauterine growth retardation in Iowa communities with herbicide-contaminated drinking water supplies. Environ Health Perspec. 1997;105:308-314.
  33. Khattak and colleagues define major malformations as, "any anomaly that has an adverse effect on either the function or the social acceptability of the child" Khattak S, Moghtader GK, McMartin K, Barrera M, Kennedy D and Koren G. Pregnancy outcome following gestational exposure to organic solvents: a prospective controlled study. JAMA. 1999;281(12):1106-9. Pg.1107. (Abstract)
  34. CALPIRG and PSR, 1998 op cit. Pg.36
  35. McMichael AI et al. The Port Pirie Study: maternal blood lead and pregnancy outcome. J Epi Comm Health 1986;40:18-25.
  36. Health Canada. Health-Related Indicators for the Great Lakes Basin Populations: Numbers 1 to 20. Ministry of Public Works and Government Services, Canada. Cat. No. H46-2/98-219E. (1998a).
  37. National Research Council. Hormonally Active Agents in the Environment. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 2000.
  38. Eil C and Nisula BS. The binding properties of pyrethroids to human skin fibroblast androgen receptros and to sex hormone binding globulin. J Steroid Biochem. 1990;35: 409-414.
  39. Colborn T, Dumanoski D and Myers JP. Our Stolen Future. NY: Penguin. 1996.
  40. Holden C. Polar Bears and PCBs. Science 1998;280(5372):2053.
  41. As found in: Soto AM, Chung KL and Sonnenschein C. The pesticides endosulfan, toxaphene, and dieldrin have estrogenic effects on human estrogen-sensitive cells. Environ Health Perspec. 1994;102:380-83.
  42. Mably TA, Moore RW and Peterson RE. In utero and lactational exposure of male rats to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlordibenzo-p-dioxin. 1. Effects on androgenic status. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1992;114:97-107.
  43. Sher ES, Xu XM, Adams PM, Craft CM and Stein SA. The effects of thyroid hormone level and action in developing brain: are these targets for the actions of polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins? Toxicol Ind Health 1998;14:121-58; Brouwer A, et al. Characterization of potential endocrine-related health effects at low-dose levels of exposure to PCBs. Environ Health Perspec 1999;107(Suppl 4): 639-49.
  44. Foster W. Endocrine Disruptors & Development of the Reproductive System in the Fetus and Children: Is there Cause for Concern? Can J Pub Health. 1998;89(Suppl 1):S37-41, S52.; Klotz LH. Why is the rate of testicular cancer increasing? CMAJ. 160 (1999), 213-4.
  45. Carlsen E, Giwercman A, Keiding N and Skakkebaek N. Evidence for decreasing quality of semen during past 50 years. Br Med J 1992;305(6854):609-613.
  46. Swan SH, Elkin EP and Fenster L. The question of declining sperm density revisited: an analysis of 101 studies published 1934-1996. Environ Health Perspect 2000;108(10):961-6
  47. Younglai EV, Collins JA and Foster WG. Canadian semen quality: an analysis of sperm density among eleven academic fertility centers. Fertil. Steril. 1998;70:76-80.
  48. Colón I, Caro D, Bourdony CJ and Rosario O. Identification of Phthalate Esters in the serum of young Puerto Rican girls with premature breast development. Environ Health Perspec 2000;108:895-900.
  49. Foster. 1998, op cit., p. S39.
  50. See for example, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). National Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals. March 21, 2001; Health Canada. Persistent Environmental Contaminants and the Great Lakes Basin Population: An Exposure Assessment. Health Canada. Minister of Public Works and Government Services, Canada. Cat. No. H46-2/98-218E. 1998; Dewailly E, Nantel A, Weber J-P and Meyer F. High levels of PCBs in Breast Milk of Inuit Women from Arctic Quebec. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 1989;43:641-646.
  51. Cooper RL and Kavlock RJ. Endocrine disruptors and reproductive development: A weight-of-evidence overview. J. Endocrin. 1997;152:159-166.
  52. Frank JW and Newman J. Breast-feeding in a polluted world: Uncertain risks, clear benefits. CMAJ 1993;149:33-7.
  53. Rogan WJ. Pollutants in breast milk. Arch Ped Adolesc Med 1996;150:981-990.

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