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introenviro

Summary
Cancer
Childhood Cancer
Carcinogenic Exposures
Long-Latency Carcinogens
Immunological Effects
Immunotoxic Exposures
Clinical Considerations
Prevention
Resources
Notes

 

 

Notes

  1. National Cancer Institute of Canada: Canadian Cancer Statistics 2000, Toronto, Canada, 2000.
  2. Levi F, C La Vecchia, F Lucchini, E Negri and P Boyle. Patterns of childhood cancer mortality: America, Asia and Oceania. Eur J Cancer 1995;31A:771-782.
  3. Altman R and M Sarg. The Cancer Dictionary. 2nd ed. New York: Facts on File; 1992. p. 51.
  4. Steingraber S. Living Downstream: An Ecologist Looks at Cancer and the Environment. New York: Addison-Wesley Pub. 1997. P. 240.
  5. Baxter CS. Carcinogenesis. In: Basic Science of Environmental Medicine: Mechanics & Principles. Brooks S, Gochfeld M, Herzstein J, Schenker M, R Jackson (Eds.) St. Louis: Mosby. 1995. p.78-94.
  6. Baxter CS. 1995. op cit. p. 81.
  7. Hoover RN. Cancer - Nature, nurture, or both. NEJM 2000;343:135-36.
  8. The National Cancer Institute of Canada: Canadian Cancer Statistics 2001, Toronto, Canada (2001).
  9. Ibid.
  10. Ibid.
  11. Gurney JG, Davis SI, Severson RK, Fang JA, Robison L. Trends in cancer incidence among children in the U.S. Cancer 1996;79:532-41.
  12. Zahm SH and Devesa SS. Childhood cancer: Overview of incidence trends and environmental carcinogens. Environ Health Perspec 1995;103(Suppl 3):177-84.
  13. Daniels JL. et al. Pesticides and childhood cancers. Environ Health Perspec 1997;105 (10):1068-1077.
  14. Linet MS, Ries LAG, Smith MA, Tarone RE, Devesa SS. Cancer Surveillance Series: Recent Trends in Childhood Cancer Incidence and Mortality in the United States. J Nat Cancer Instit 1999;91:1051-1058.
  15. Kaiser J. No meeting of the minds on childhood cancer. Science 1999;286:1832.
  16. According to Cancer Care Ontario as cited in: Everyday Carcinogens: Stopping Cancer Before it Starts. Background Paper for Workshop on Primary Cancer Prevention. March 26-27, 1999, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada.
  17. Currently the Canadian Childhood Cancer Surveillance and Control Project (CCCSCP) is working to establish a national, population-based database of childhood cancer cases with the aim of further identifying the risk factors involved.
  18. Canadian Cancer Society. Canadian Cancer Statistics 1988. Toronto, Canada, 1988. p. 28.
  19. Olshan AF, Anderson L, Roman E, Fear N, Wolff M, Whyatt R, Vu V, et al. Workshop to Identify Critical Windows of Exposure for Children's Health: Cancer work group summary. Environ Health Perspec 2000;108:595-97.
  20. Ibid. page 595.
  21. Bearer CF. Pediatric developmental toxicology. In: Environmental Medicine. Brooks SM. et al (Eds). St. Louis: Mosby, 1995. Pp. 115-128.
  22. Daniels et al. 1997. op cit.
  23. Blot WJ, Henderson BE and Boice Jr, JD. Childhood cancer in relation to cured meat intake: review of the epidemiological evidence. Nutrition & Cancer. 1999;34(1):111-8.
  24. Colt JS and Blair A. Parental occupational exposures and risk of childhood cancer Environ Health Perspec 1998;106(suppl 3): 909-25.
  25. Infante-Rivard C and Sinnett D. Preconceptional paternal exposure to pesticides and increased risk of chldhood leukemial. Lancet 1999;354: 1819.
  26. Gardner MJ, Snee MP, Hall AJ, Powell CA, Downes S, and Terrell JD. Results of a case-control study of leukemia and lymphoma among young people near Sellafield nuclear power plant in West Cumbria. Br Med J 1990;300:429-434.
  27. Infante-Rivard C, Labuda D, Krajinovic M and Sinnett D. Risk of childhood leukemia associated with exposure to pesticides and with gene polymorphisms. Epidemiology 1999;10:481-7.
  28. Greaves MF. Aetiology of acute leukaemia. Lancet 1997;349:344-349.
  29. Steingraber S. Living Downstream: An Ecologist Looks at Cancer and the Environment. New York: Addison-Wesley Pub. 1997. P. 39.
  30. American Academy of Pediatrics. Committee on Environmental Health. Handbook of Pediatric Environmental Health. Etzel R and Balk SJ. (Eds.) Chapter 30. Cancer; Elk Grove Illinois: American Academy of Pediatrics;1999.
  31. American Academy of Pediatrics. 1999. op cit.
  32. For example, see the alphabetic list, Overall Evaluations of Carcinogenicity to Humans, by the International Association for Research on Cancer (IARC); or details of individual evaluations.
  33. Goldman LR. Chemicals and children's environment: What we don't know about risks. Environ Health Perspec 1998;106(Suppl 3):875-880. p. 875
  34. Zahm SH and Devesa SS. 1995 op cit.
  35. Baxter CS. Carcinogenesis. In: Basic Science of Environmental Medicine: Mechanics & Principles. Brooks S, Gochfeld M, Herzstein J, Schenker M, R Jackson (Eds.) St. Louis: Mosby. 1995. p. 78-94.
  36. Miller RW. Special susceptibility of the child to certain radiation-induced cancers. Environ Health Perspec 1995;103(Suppl 6):41-44.
  37. Schwenn MR. Brill AB. Childhood cancer 10 years after the Chernobyl accident. Curr Opin Ped. 9;1997:51-54.
  38. Greaves MF Aetiology of acute leukaemia. Lancet. 1997;349:344-349.
  39. Zahm SH and Devesa SS. 1995 op cit.
  40. Harvey EB, Boice Jr JD, Honeyman M, Flannery JT. Prenatal X-ray exposure and childhood cancer in twins. NEJM 1985;312:541-45.
  41. McBride ML. Childhood cancer and environmental contaminants. Can J Pub Health 1998;89(Suppl 1): S53-62.
  42. Collman GW, Loomis DP and Sandler DP. Childhood cancer mortality and radon concentration in drinking water in North Carolina. Br J Cancer 1991;63:626-29.
  43. See e.g., Gardner MJ et al. 1990 op cit. ; McLaughlin JR, King WD, Anderson TW, Clarke EA, Ashmore JP. Paternal radiation exposure and leukaemia in offspring: the Ontario case-control study. Br Med J 1993;307:959-66.
  44. Anderson LM, Diwan BA, Fear NT, Roman E. Critical Windows of Exposure for Children's Health: Cancer in human epidemiological studies and neoplasms in experimental animal models. Environ Health Perspec 2000;108(suppl 3):573-94.
  45. National Research Council. Possible Health Effects of Exposure to Residential Electric and Magnetic Fields. Washington, DC; National Academy Press, 1997.
  46. Loomis D, Lagorio S, Salvan A and Coma P. Update of evidence on the association of childhood leukemia and 50/60 Hz magnetic field exposure. J Exp Anal Env Epid 1999;2:99-105.
  47. American Academy of Pediatrics, 1999. op cit. Chapter 10. Electric and Magnetic Fields.
  48. Health Canada. The Health & Environment Handbook for Health Professionals. Contaminant Profiles: BTEX - Benzene, Toluene, Ethyl benzene and Xylene/Gasoline. Ministry of Supply & Services. Cat. No. H49-96/2-1995E, 1998. (Available in PDF format.)
  49. CALPIRG - California Public Interest Research Group Charitable Trust and PSR -Physicians for Social Responsibility (Greater SF Bay & LA Chapters) Generations at Risk: How Environmental Toxicants may Affect Reproductive Health in California; November 1998.
  50. Colt JS and Blair A. Parental occupational exposures and risk of childhood cancer Environ Health Perspec 1998;106(suppl3): 909-25.
  51. Health Canada. The Health & Environment Handbook for Health Professionals. Ministry of Supply & Services. Cat. No. H49-96/2-1995E, 1998. (Available in PDF format.)
  52. IARC. Overall Evaluations of Carcinogenicity. Benzene. Supplement 7: 1987; p. 120. CAS No. 71-43-2 Chem. Abstr. Name: Benzene. Search.
  53. Hemminki K, Soniemi S, Salonen T, Partanen T, Vainio H. Childhood cancer and parental occupation in Finland. J Epid Comm Health 1981;35:11-15; and Vianna NJ, Kovaszny B, Polan A, Ju C. Infant leukemia and paternal exposure to motor vehicle exhaust fumes. J Occup Med 1984;26:679-681.
  54. Peters JM, et al. Uses of a cancer registry in the assessment of occupational cancer risks. Nat Canc Inst Monogr 1985;69:157-161; Fabia J, Thuy TD. Occupation of father at time of birth of children dying of malignant disease. Br J Prev Soc Med 1974;28:98-100.
  55. Colt and Blair, 1998 op cit.
  56. City of Toronto, Public Health, Environmental Protection Office. Pesticides: A Public Health Perspective. Unpublished report released October 30, 1998. (Available in PDF format)
  57. Zahm SH, Ward M and Blair A. Pesticides and cancer. Occupational Medicine: State of the Art Reviews. 1997;12 (2): 269-89.
  58. Fychting M, Plato N, Nise G and Ahlbom A. Paternal occupational exposures and childhood cancer. Environ Health Perspec 2001;109:193-96.
  59. Hardell L and Eriksson M. A case-control study of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and exposure to pesticides. Cancer 1999;85:1353-60.
  60. Kristensen P, Andersen A, Irgens LM, Bye AS and Sundheim L. Cancer in offspring of parents engaged in agricultural activities in Norway: Incidence and risk factors in the farm environment. Int J Cancer 1996;65:39-50.
  61. Daniels et al. 1997 op cit.
  62. Ibid; and Leiss JK, and Savitz DA. Home pesticide use and childhood cancer: A case-control study. Am J Pub Health 1995;85:249-252.
  63. Davis JR, Brownson RC, Garcia R, Bentz BJ and Turner A Family pesticide use and childhood brain cancer. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 1993;24:87-92.
  64. Davis JR, et al. 1993 op cit.
  65. Leiss JK and DA Savitz. 1995 op cit.
  66. Sasco AJ and Vainio H. From in utero and childhood exposure to parental smoking to childhood cancer: a possible link and the need for action. Hum Exper Toxicol 1999;18(4):192-201.
  67. Ibid.
  68. For example, see Langord IH. A multi-level log-linear model of chldhood leukemia mortality. Health & Place 1995;1:113-119; Kinlen LJ, Hudson CM and Stiller CA. Contacts between adults as evidence for an infective origin of childhood leukemia: an explanation for the excess near nuclear establishments in West Berkshire? Br J Cancer 1991;64:549-54.
  69. Anderson et al. 2000 op cit. p. 578.
  70. Weinstock MA, Colditz GA, Willett WC, et al. Nonfamilial cutaneous melanoma incidence in women asociated with sun exposure before 20 years of age. Pediatrics. 1989;84:199-204.
  71. National Research Council. Hormonally Active Agents in the Environment. Washington: National Academy Press. 1999. p. 7
  72. Weir, H.K. , L.D. Marrett and V. Moravan. Trends in incidence of testicular germ cell cancer in Ontario by histologic subgroup, 1964-1996. CMAJ. 1999;160:201-205.
  73. Klotz LH. Why is the rate of testicular cancer increasing? CMAJ 1999;160:213-4.
  74. Sharpe R.M. and N.E. Skakkebæk. Are oestrogens involved in falling sperm counts and disorders of the male reproductive tract? Lancet. 1993;341:1392-5.
  75. Dietert RR et al. Workshop to Identify Critical Windows of Exposure for Children's Health: Immune and respiratory systems work group summary. Environ Health Perspec 2000;108(suppl3): 483-490.
  76. Holladay SD and Smialowicz RJ. Development of the murine and human immune sytsem: Differential effects of immunotoxicants depend on time of exposure. Environ Health Perspec 2000;108(suppl3): 463-473.
  77. Szentivanyi A, Ali K, Abarca C, Prockop L, Brooks SM. Environmental Immunotoxicology. In: Basic Science of Environmental Medicine: Mechanics & Principles. Brooks S, Gochfeld M, Herzstein J, Schenker M, R Jackson (Eds.) St. Louis: Mosby; 1995. p. 139-155.
  78. Dietert et al. 2000 op cit.
  79. Kipen HM, Fiedler N and Lehrer P. Multiple Chemical Sensitivity: A primer for pulmonologists. Clin. Pulm Med. 1997;4:76-84.
  80. Kipen HM and Fiedler NL. MCS, Unexplained Symptoms and the Environment. Risk Policy Report. 1999;6:30-33.
  81. Of note, there are a host of other medically unexplained syndromes that appear to have a striking similarity of symptoms and may represent related health problems (Kipen and Fiedler, 1999, op.cit.). These include chronic fatigue syndrome, fibromyalgia, irritable bowel syndrome, sick building syndrome, Gulf war syndrome, chronic hypoglycemia, among other conditions that appear to be increasing in prevalence.
  82. Canadian Institute of Child Health. Environmental Contaminants and the Implications for Child Health. Literature Review. (2nd draft). Prepared by Harmsen E, Avard D, Chance G and Underwood K. Ottawa: CICH;1999.
  83. Dietert et al. 2000 op cit.
  84. Hara I. Health status and PCBs in blood of workers exposed to PCBs and their children. Environ Health Perspec 1985;59:85-90.
  85. Weisglas-Kuperus N, Sas TC, Koopman-Esseboom C, van der Zwan CW, De Ridder MA, Beishuizen A, et al. Immunologic effects of background prenatal and postnatal exposure to dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls in Dutch infants. Pediatr Res 1995;38:404-410.
  86. Weisglas-Kuperus N, Patandin S, Berbers GAM, Sas TCJ, Mulder P.H, Sauer PJJ and Hooijkaas H. Immunologic Effects of Background Exposure to Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Dioxins in Dutch Preschool Children. Environ Health Perspec 2000;108:1203-1207.
  87. Dewailly E, Ayotte P, Bruneau S, Gingras S, Belles-Isles M, and Roy R. Susceptibility to Infections and Immune Status in Inuit Infants Exposed to Organochlorines. Env Health Perspec 2000;108:205-211.
  88. Blair PB. Immunologic consequences of early exposure of mice to diethyltilbestrol (DES). Clin Pract Gynecol 1991;2:91-108.
  89. Blair PB, Noller KL, Turiel J, Forghani B and Hagens S. Disease patterns and antibody responses to viral antigens in women exposed in Utero to Diethylstilbestrol. In: Chemically-Induced Alterations in Sexual and Functional Development. The Wildlife/Human Connection. Colborn T and Clement C (Eds.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton Scientific Publishing Co; 1992. p. 283-288.
  90. Repetto R. and Baliga SS. Pesticides and the Immune System: The Public Health Risks. Washington: World Resources Institute. 1996. 103 p.
  91. De Swart RL, Ross PS, Timmerman HH, Vos HW, Reijnders PJH, Vos JG and Osterhaus ADME. Impaired cellular immune response in Harbour Seals (Phoca vitulina) feeding on environmentally contaminated herring. Clin Exptl Immunol. 1995;101: 480-86.
  92. Repetto and Baliga 1996 op.cit.
  93. Goettsch W, Garssen J, de Gruijl FR, and van Loveren H. UV-B and the immune system. Thymus 1992;21:93-114.
  94. Langford IH, Bentham G and McDonald A-L. Mortality from non-Hodgkin lymphoma and UV exposure in the European Community. Health & Place 1998;4:355-64.
  95. Szentivanyi et al. 1995 op cit.
  96. Ibid.
  97. Ibid.
  98. See for example, Repetto R and Baliga SS. Response to the ACPA's Critique. Environ Health Perspec 1998;106:A52-53; Acquavella J et al. A critique of the World Resources Institute's report on Pesticides and the Immune System: The Public Health Risks. Environ Health Perspec 1998a;106:51-54; Acquavella J et al. Reponse. Environ Health Perspec 1998b;106:A53-54; and Charles Marwick, Provocative report issued on use of pesticides. JAMA 1996;275:899-900.
  99. Statement from the Work Session on Chemically Induced Alterations in the Developing Immune System: The Wildlife/Human Connection. Racine, Wisconsin February 1995.
  100. Preston-Martin S, Pogoda JM, Mueller BA, Lubin F, Modan B, Holly EZ, Filippini G, Cordier S, Peris-Bonet R, Choi W, Little J and Arslan A. Results form an international case-control study of childhood brain tumors: The role of prenatal vitamin supplementation. Environ Health Perspec 1998;106(Suppl3): 887-892.
  101. Shu XO, MS Linet, M Steinbuch, WQ Wen, JD Buckley, JP Neglia, JD Potter, GH Reaman, and LL Robison. Breast-feeding and risk of childhood acute leukemia. J Natl Cancer Inst 1999;91:1765-1772.
  102. Cummings JH and Bingham SA. 1998. Diet and the prevention of cancer. Br Med J 1998;317:1636-1640. (Available at www.bmj.com.)
  103. Canadian Institute of Child Health. What on Earth? Proceedings from National Symposium on Environmental Contaminants and the Implications for Child Health - Canadian Institute for Child Health; May 1997.
  104. Frank JW and Newman J. Breast-feeding in a polluted world: Uncertain risks, clear benefits. CMAJ 1993;149:33-7.
  105. Rogan WJ. Pollutants in breast milk. Arch Ped Adolesc Med 1996;150:981-990.

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